Football Coach

Football Coach As the sun rises to its highest peak of the day, the local high school team starts heading to the dry dirt filled football field. As the athletes make their way to the field the dust rises and the smell of the soil hits their nose. The athletes continuing their daily ritual, get into their usual formations and start their warm ups. The head coach, Shane Cox, walks around and initiates small talk with the players. Shane Cox inherited the head position at Fairfax High School in 1999. He turned around a football program that hasn’t won a single football game in two years; Shane Cox has won two Los Angeles Division II City Championships in the past decade. Serving for more than 13 years, Coach Cox has contributed a lot of his time and effort into this program at Fairfax High School. A high school coach has to work additional hours during the sports season. This can result in a work week over 40 hours. Working nights, holidays, evenings and weekends are common for high school coaches. A high school coach has to be prepared to work in bad weather and be willing to travel with the team to different locations for games. They also run the risk of injury due to being on the sidelines during sports games. Although Coach Cox’s accomplishments for coaching are impressive, his accomplishments off the field are impressive as well. A football coach’s job is to not only improve his player athletically, but as a person as well.

Secondary Motives

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Synthetic Milk

Assessment of synthetic milk exposure to children of selected population in Uttar Pradesh, India Shuchi R. Bhatt1, Dr. Anita Singh2 and S. M. Bhatt3 (Abstract) The present study was carried out keeping in view the recently emerging concern of the adulteration of the natural milk with the synthetic milk. Synthetic milk is prepared by emulsifying vegetable oils with appropriate amount of detergent and urea. Samples of the natural milk with synthetic milk were analyzed for concentration of urea and detergent and their effect is assayed through survey in different population in Uttar Pradesh, India.Children’s had different range of intake of milk. Children of age group 1-5 years consumes about 50-250 mg of milk daily, while of age group 6-18 years of children consumes about 250-1000 ml milk/day and children’s of age group 19-22 consumes milk about 500-1000 ml milk /day. Addition of synthetic milk is on large scale in Meerut district of U. P. and mostly urea in such milk cre ating huge problem of headache, eyesight and diarrhea in children. Keywords: Milk adulteration; Synthetic milk, detection, urea 1.Research Scholar, Faculty of H. Sc, Sri. A. K. A. P. G. Collage Varanasi. 2. Head, Department of Food & Nutrition, Sri. Agrasen Kanya Autonomous P. G. College. Parmanandpur, Varanasi. 3. School of Biochemical Engineering, Institule of Technology B. H. U. Varanasi. Corresponding Author Email: [email  protected] co. in 1 Introduction Liquid milk is an essential nutritional food for infants as well as the aged. Adulteration of natural milk with a chemically synthesized milky liquid (synthetic milk) is a matter of serious concern.The dairy industry employs various checks these tests commonly include determination of fat and total solids by chemical or physical analyses; estimation of sediment by forcing milk through filter pads and noting the residue left; determination of Bacterial count and determination of freezing point etc. (Dean, 1985; Fox, 1992). How ever, most of these measurements are expensive and time consuming like measurement of conductance (Mebrook & Petty 2003 a and b; Willard et al 2003). Synthetic milk is an excellent imitation of natural milk.Milk fat is mimicked by vegetable oil; the nitrogen component in milk is mimicked by urea; detergents are added to make it frothy. This mixture is so expertly prepared that the specific gravity of the concocted milk is the same as natural buffalo milk. This mixture is then mixed with natural milk in varying proportions. Such milk can be processed into ‘‘value added’’ products which bring in a bigger profit. A recent Indian Council of Medical research (ICMR) report has suggested that such adulterated items have a cancerous effect on the human system and can lead to gradual impairment of the body.Milk is a complex mixture of water, lactose, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins distributed throughout colloidal and soluble phases. Although the cow is the pri ncipal source of milk for human consumption in the United States and many other parts of the world (DePeters 1992). In India most milk is 2 obtained from the buffalo. The composition of milk from buffalo is water (82. 14%), fat (7. 44%), protein (4. 78%), lactose (4. 8%) and ash (0. 83%) (Rangappa & Achary, 1973).On average milk has optimum level of urea and other chemicals but due to habit of making huge profit there is on going malpractice of using synthetic milk in the original milk. Therefore there is need to work out regularly in different region of India to expose such malpractices and to check such malpractices adapted ignoring health concerns of people. The effect of urea on animal reproductive system has been carried out by Ropstad etal 1987. They reported that reproduction system and reproductive cycle in animals get badly affected by high concentration of urea.This work is carried out to expose and to increase the awareness among people to decline such malpractices adapte d, since it is difficult to detect such harmful adulterants in dangerous amount in household. One quick method describe in the article is to check the pH of the milk by pH paper (red turns blue) that is available freely and can’t be adjusted quickly at large scale. Material and method Survey Preschool (1-5 years) and school going (6-18 years) children in urban and rural area from different district of U. P. had been surveyed.A total of 365 household were surveyed in which 70 children’s were of age group 1-5 years, 150 children’s were of age group 6-18 years, and 145 children’s were of age group 19-22 years. Since it was household survey, the homemaker of the household was interviewed for intake of milk. The region of study selected was Varanasi, Bulandsahar, Meerut and Mathura. Thus, 365 individuals in urban area and 365 in rural area were surveyed. The milk were 3 collected from the household and tested for presence of urea and detergent. The frequency m ethod was employed for calculation.The survey includes consumption of milk/day, their effect on health such as headache, eyesight problem, and diarrhea. Also, 160 sample of the milk were collected from different local market, vendors, and stalls of Bulandsahar, Mathura, Meerut, and Varanasi. Qualitative analysis for urea detection Qualitative analysis for urea detection were done by the method describe below 1. Took 5 ml of milk in a test tube 2. Added 20 mg of Soya bean powder & 2 drops of 0. 5 % aqueous solution of Bromothymol blue. 3. Mixed the sample well. 4. The development of Blue colour after 10 min indicates the addition of urea the sample. 5.For confirmatory test was done by adding five ml of milk with 5 ml paradimethyl amino benzaldehyde (16%). If the solution turns yellow in colour, then the given sample of milk is added with urea. Quantitative analysis for urea detection A quantitative estimate of urea was carried out by preparing standard of urea and their pH variation and by utilizing Urease enzyme. For this we took 5 ml of milk in a test tube and added 0. 2 ml of urease (20 mg / ml) and centrifuged it well at room temperature. Now added 0. 1 ml of bromothymol blue solution (0. 5%). The appearance of blue colour after 10-15 min indicates the adulteration milk with urea.Urease can be obtained by adding 4 soybean slurry (source of urease prepared by soaking soybeans overnight or for 12 hours in water and grinding to prepare a slurry). (Dean J. A 1985) The OD of sample was taken in UV-Vis Spectrophotometer (ELICO double beam) at 420 nm. And pH was measured by pH meter using buffer sample set at pH 4. In the presence of urea the red litmus paper turns blue. Urea Standard Solution was prepared by following method – (a) Stock solution concentration was 5 mg / ml. Dissolved 50 gm reagent grade urea in water and dilute to 1 litre with water. b) Working solution was prepared by Pipetting 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 ml stock solution into 250 ml volumetric flask and dilute to volume with phosphate buffer. (c) Reference solution – standard solution was containing 1. 0 mg urea / 5 ml as reference standard. Figure caption Fig. 1 showing variation of pH with different concentration of urea Fig. 2 showing variation of urea and detergent in different region of Uttar Pradesh India Fig. 3 showing children affected by synthetic milk in different age group (a) Headache; (b) Eyesight ; and (c) Diarrhea. 5 Figures Urea 5 4 Urea % (w/v) 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 pH Fig. 1 showing variation of pH with different concentration of urea 60 Urban Rural % of Urea and detergent adultrants 50 40 30 20 10 0 Bulandsahar Mathura Meerut Varanasi Fig. 2 showing variation of urea and detergent in different region of Uttar Pradesh India 6 Headache 40 35 30 Urban Rural 60 50 Eye sight problem Urban Rural % of sample 25 20 15 10 5 0 1-5 6-18 19-22 % of sample 40 30 20 10 0 1-5 6-18 19-22 age group Age group (a) (b) % of children affected by problem of Diarrhea 60 50 Urban Rural % of total sample 40 30 20 10 0 1-5 6-18 19-22 Age group (c) Fig. showing children affected by synthetic milk in different age group (a) Headache; (b) Eyesight ; and (c) Diarrhea. 7 Tables Table-1 showing different constituents of milk CONSTITUENTS Water Lipid in emulion phase ( mixture of mixed triglecerides) Phospolipids ( lacithine, Cephaline, ) STEROLS carotenoids vit. A, D. E. K Protiens (Casein) B- Lactoglobulin Lactoalbumin Albumin, Psuedoglobulin etc Enzymes ( Catalase, Peroxidase, Amylase, Lipase, Protease) DESSOLVED MATERIALS Carbohydraetes Lactose Glocose ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ION & SALTS Calcium Phosphate Citrate Chloride, Sodium, Pottasium, Magnesium etc.Water soluble Vitamins Thiamin APPROX.. CONCENTRATION / LIT 860 TO 880 gms 30-50gms 0. 30 gms 0. 10 gms 25 gms 3 gms 0. 7gms 40-50 gms 50 mgs 1. 25 gms 2. 10 gms 2. 0 gms 1. 00 gms 0. 4 mg 1. 5 mg 8 Riboflavin Niacin Pyridoxin Pentothenic Acid Biotin Folic acid Chline (Total) Vit B12 inosi tol Ascorbic acid Nitrogenous material Ammonia Amino Acids Urea Creatine and Createnine Uric acid Gases Carbon dio Oxide Oxygen Nitrogen 0. 2 -1. 2 mg 0. 7mg 3. 0 mg 50 mg 1. 0 mg 150 mg 7. 0 mg 180 mg 20 gm 2-12 mg 3. 5 mg 100 mg 15 mg 7 mg Milk exposed to air 15 mg 7. mg 15 mg Copper, Iron, Rb, Trace element Li, Ba, Mn, Al, Zn, B, Co, I Occasionally Present Mc, Cr, Ag, Sn, Ti, 9 Table 2. Average Composition of milk Item Water Lactose Fat True Protein Crude Protein Casein Ash Other Average milk composition % 87. 00 4. 90 3. 70 3. 00 3. 10 2. 60 . 80 . 50 Table -3 showing average milk consumed by different age group Mean of Milk age (years) 1-5 years 6-18 years 19-22 years children consumed 70 150 145 156. 428 SD range 53. 78 50-250 500 274. 77 250-1000 800 224. 22 500-1000 10Table-4 Effect of urea on different age groups in urban area No. of Age group 1-5 years 6-18 19-22 children Headache Eye problem 70 150 145 nil 42 56 8 86 76 Digestion /diarrhea 32 86 76 normal 38 60 69 Table-5 Effect of urea on different age groups in rural area (365 samples) No. of Age group 1-5 years 6-18 19-22 children Headache Eye problem 70 150 145 nil 6 16 2 25 18 Digestion /diarrhea 16 25 18 normal 54 125 127 Table-6 Sample tested in rural area (sample tested 160) No. of sample 40 38 32 50 City >5% urea 5% urea

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Comparative character analysis Research Proposal

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Cambrian Explosion - Research Paper Example Parker defines it thus: â€Å"The Cambrian explosion is the evolutionary episode in which all animal phyla attained complex external forms.† (Parker, 2003, p. 9) The phylum is the body plan of an animal, and in the period before 543 million years ago, called the Precambrian era, there were only three distinct animal phyla, whereas at 538 million years ago, there were 38, and this phenomenal increase is what gives rise to the term â€Å"Cambrian explosion.† Some aspects of this theory are, however, disputed, and there are studies which support a much more gradual development of the 38 animal phyla over a much longer time, reaching back long before the so-called explosion period from 543 million years ago. This paper examines the key arguments in favour and against the phenomenon known as the Cambrian explosion concludes with some reflection on what the implications of the Cambrian explosion debate are for modern science. Most scholars agree that there is a step-change in the fossil record at around 543 million years ago. There are some problems, however, in assuming that this surviving record showing a sudden increase in phyla variation gives us a true and complete picture of what actually happened. As scientists discover and analyse further samples, and as new technologies emerge which allow different kinds of analysis, the picture can change dramatically. Above all, it must always be remembered that the preservation of specimens is largely a matter of chance, and there is always the possibility that key pieces of evidence have not survived, or have not yet been discovered: â€Å"While fossils provide the only tangible evidence for the origin of animals, some key early metazoan fossils are rare and many lack informative characters, making the derivation of a rigorous phylogenetic hypothesis based solely on fossil data difficult.† (Cartwright and Collins, 2007) Referring to new technologies such as comparative genomics , Cartwright and Colli ns conclude that â€Å"currently available genomic data supports the origin of a complex genome predating the Cambrian radiation, with the ancestral genome possessing the molecular toolkit necessary for an ‘explosion’ of body plans and complex traits.† (Cartwright and Collins, 2007) This position modifies the theory of the Cambrian explosion only slightly, since it theorizes a large number of evolutionary changes before 543 million years ago, at the molecular level, which then had the effect of causing a rapid divergence of organisms in the Cambrian explosion period. Factors external to the animals then prompt the adaptations that we see in the physical record. Some of the more popular science books propose single factors as â€Å"triggers† for the Cambrian explosion, such as changes in the way that light affected the earth which in turn prompte the evolution of sight, which had the effect of increasing pressure on organisms to avoid being seen and eaten b y other organisms (Parker, 2003). The importance of the Burgess shale deposits in British Columbia, Canada is recognized as a crucial piece of evidence and has been labelled as the indicator of a â€Å"Big Bang† in animal evolution. (Carroll, 2005, p. 138) The diversity of forms is explained in terms of adaptation to changes in the environment: â€Å"Genes in the tool kit are important actors in this picture, but the tool kit itself represents only possibilities, not destiny. The drama of the Cambrian was driven by ecology on a global

Scope of Liability for Negligent Misstatement by Professionals Assignment

Scope of Liability for Negligent Misstatement by Professionals - Assignment Example Scope of Liability for Negligent Misstatement Test of Negligence Generally, for a claim of negligence to stand, one has to prove three elements. These elements are: That there was a duty of care owed to the claimant by the defendant, That the duty of care owed was breached, That the breach caused reasonably foreseeable damage borne by the claimant These grounds have been applied for cases involving personal injury. But when it comes to negligent misstatement by professionals, this control test may not be appropriate, more so when it comes to the element of reasonable foreseeability. In Caparo Industries Plc V Dickman, Lord Oliver foresaw a situation whereby a professional would be open to a limitless scope of liability, if the test of reasonable foreseeability alone was applied, (Katter 2003, P. 1). ... A duty of care will only arise where the advice giver, expressly or impliedly, guaranteed the information user that he will exercise due care when making the required statement. The person giving advice must be in possession of special skills and judgement on which the claimant relied on. This will not suffice if according to the circumstances, it was unreasonable for the claimant to rely on such a statement. The information giver, at the time of giving the statement, must have known or reasonably expected to know, that the claimant was going to rely on the statement given. In the case of Hedley Byrne & Co. Ltd V Heller & Partners Ltd, the plaintiffs who were an advertising agency had suffered economic losses due to the negligent statement of the defendant bank about the financial standing of one of its clients. It was held that where there exists a special relationship and an individual gives inaccurate statements where it was reasonably foreseeable that that information was to be a cted on, liability could arise for losses sustained from that reliance. When it comes to the requirement of special relationship, liability restricted only to reasonable circumstances. This prevents a situation whereby multiple claims could be made against the same defendant who has made a negligent statement that turns out to affect many people. In order to restrict such multiple claims arising from the same misstatement, the court laid out the essential of special relationship in the case of Caparo Industries V Dickman (1990). These essential are: That the maker of the statement knew that it would be communicated to plaintiff, whether named or unnamed. That the advice given was in relation to a particular transaction or one that is ascertainable. That the maker of the statement

When I Lost a Friend Essay Example for Free

When I Lost a Friend Essay Jason was the bravest fire-fighter I had ever worked with. He used to say that no matter how rich you are, no matter how strong you are, if you do not risk your life for others, you are not a man. Once, we were supposed to attend day-shift but our boss called Jason and myself and told us to work the night-shift instead. As we went in at seven o’clock in the evening, we made a cup of coffee and started checking the fire trucks. At around ten o’clock, the siren rang and we were informed that our assistance was required as there was a burning house. Six trucks, including two ladder trucks, emerged from the garages and we sped up the highway of North Carolina as fast as we could. As we arrived, a young man came rushing at us, panic-stricken, with tears in his eyes, telling us that his girlfriend was trapped in the flames.   Quickly Jason with the courage of a lion, fetched his breathing apparatus and an axe an in he went in the hungry flames of the devastating fire. We followed him in and as we were going up the stairs, he ordered us to go out again because everything was brittle and the structure of the house could no longer support four people. We went out again while he kept advancing in the towering flames. We kept radio contact with him and when he heard the crying and shouting of twenty-year old Christa, he quickly told us that he had found the girl. Half an hour later, Jason emerged from a door with the girl walking beside him and when the girl ran to her boyfriend he fell to the ground. We rushed to see what had happened but he was dead.   One of my friends, Jack, looked at the lung monitor. (This is a digital watch which measures the concentration of carbon dioxide against that of oxygen in the lungs). The ratio was scary. He had eighty-five percent carbon dioxide and fifteen per-cent oxygen in his lungs. This was the worst day of my life. Jason, my right hand man passed away while on duty saving a person’s life. As a show of respect we stuck a large sticker with his saying on his truck: â€Å"No matter how rich you are, no matter how strong you are, if you do not risk your life for others, you are not a man†.

The Light Emitting Diodes Engineering Essay

The Light Emitting Diodes Engineering Essay History of lighting devices starts with low efficient incandescent lamps, then next came the CFL lamp. In the history of lighting devices, invention of LED was a turning point Light Emitting Diode or simply LED is an electronic device, which emits light when electricity passes through it. LED has a number of different uses in day to day life. Its uses varies from a simple power on indicator to indicator to traffic signals. LED uses about 10% of the energy traditional light bulb uses and they can last about thirty times longer.LED lights are highly efficient and cost effective. Nano technology has its own role to play in lighting devices history. Invention of quantum dots and ionic liquids changed the face of lighting industry. Quantum Dots LEDs were manufactured using quantum dots particles. QLEDs offer better luminescence than normal LED lights. Introduction of Ionic Liquids (IL) was another turning point. Still in the beginning stage, Ionic Liquids offer a better solution to the world of lighting devices. 2. Light Emitting Diodes (LED) A Light Emitting Diode or LED is a semi-conductor device which can be used as a light-source. Semiconductors are neither a good conductor nor an insulator. Semiconductors are made up of semiconducting materials like Silicon or Germanium. A diode (also called as a PN junction diode) has two terminals, anode(a) and cathode (k), anode is a positive terminal and cathode is negative terminal- which allows electric current to pass only in one direction. A semiconductor diode can be compared to a switch or a one-way valve. A Light Emitting Diode emits light when electric current passes through it. The colour emitted by an LED depends on the type of semiconductor material used for its construction. Common colours available for LEDs are green, red, orange, blue, yellow and white. Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInp) alloy is used for obtaining red, yellow and orange lights. Indium gallium nitride (IaGaN) is used for getting blue, green and white lights. White and Blue LEDs are more expensive than other colours. Apart from the above colours, Infra Red LEDS (also called IREDs-Infra Red Emitting Diodes) and Ultra Violet LEDs are also available. Staring into an Ultra Violet LEDS is harmful to the eyes. 3. Quantum dot LEDs (QLEDs) Quantum Dots are very small crystals, in nanotechnology terminology, they are nano particles of semiconductor materials, usually its diameter varies between 2 and 10 nano meters. Quantum dot particles were discovered in early 80s by Louis Brus at Bell Laboratories. A Quantum Dot can contain either a single electron or thousands of electrons. Generally quantum dots are made from the sulphides or selenides of semi conductor materials like Zinc or Cadmium. Quantum dots electronic and optical characters are related to the size and shape of each particles. When energy is applied (under excitation), electrons get energized and moved to higher bands, and when electrons get back to the stable state, the additional energy is emitted as light corresponding to a certain frequency. Its narrow emission spectrum is directly proportional to the size of the crystal. Smaller particles give a blue shifted emission and larger particles give a red shifted emission. Using a technique called size quantization effect, quantum dots can be tuned to produce any colour during manufacturing. Quantum dot LEDs (QLED or QD LED) are devices which use quantum dots as their light emitting material. These dots are excited when electricity is applied and emits light according to the size of the dots. Larger dots produce more energy levels and darker colours and smaller dots create smaller energy levels and emits lighter colour shades. Gold or silver nano particles are very versatile materials whose diameter varies from 1nm to 100nm. Gold nano particles are comparatively smaller that of Silicon Quantum Dots. And it s experimentally proven that, smaller particles generate better fluorescence than that of larger particles. So, Quantum Dot LEDs manufactured from gold or silver nano particles increases the luminescence. 4. Ionic liquids (IL) Ionic liquid is the salt form of any material in liquid state. Ionic liquids are liquid salts. Ionic liquids are made up of, ions (charged atoms) or ion pairs. These ions or ion pairs are poorly coordinated in the liquid. This poor coordination of ions results in the liquid from below 100 °C. Ionic liquids are also known as liquid electrolytes or ionic fluids. When a salt melts without decomposing, it results to an Ionic Liquid. Ionic bond is much more stronger than the bond between the normal Van der Waals forces in the molecules. Ionic liquid changes its form to ionic solid when it gets cooled. Ionic solids are seen in two forms, crystalline and glassy. At low temperature, ionic liquids acts like ionic solutions, which is a combination of both ions and neutral molecules. Ionic liquids are also called designer solvents, because they are manufacturing in the lab for specific purpose. Properties of ionic liquids are they dont evaporate, and it is a good conductor of electricity, and it dissolves almost everything. The reason for their non-evaporate property is their non-volatile nature. So, Ionic liquids can replace some acids and organic solvents. Ionic liquids are used for electro polishing, metal plating, extracting metals from rocks. Applications for Ionic liquids are storage for chemical cells, batteries, fuel cells and electro chronic devices for displays, cellulose processing, used as dispersants agents in paints, for gas handling and storage, for natural fuel processing, in food and bio-product industries, in recycling of plastic and synthetic wastes etc. 5. Turn-On Time Turn on time or rise time is the time required by a signal to change from low state to high state. The time it takes for the output of a system to change from a specified small percentage (usually 5 or 10) of its steady-state increment to a specified large percentage (usually 90 or 95).   (www.answers.com) An LEDs turn-on-time is the time needed by the device to turn from OFF state to ON state. Time needed to emit the light, after applying the electricity. LEDs are very fast devices and its turn-on time is 0.0001S or 0.1mS. Polymer light emitting diodes (PLED) uses an electro luminescent conductive polymer that emits light when connected to a power supply. PLEDs need very small amount of electricity to emit light and therefore they are considered to be very efficient. A polymer light emitting diode use ionic liquids as one its active material. Usually polymer light emitting diode has fast turn on time. 6. Improved Efficiencies in LED LED efficiency can be improved by paying attention on packaging, chip structure and positive voltage applying. White LEDs are usually considered to be more efficient that the other Red, Green, Blue colour LEDs. White light in LED can be produced in two ways. One method is, using three individual LEDs which producing the primary colours and then mixing them to produce the white light. Another method is, using the principle which is using in fluorescent lights, a phosphor material is used to convert light from UV or blue LED to white light. The luminous efficiency of blue/UV chip and the conversion efficiency of phosphorous determine the efficiency of white LED. Luminous efficiency is highly influenced by temperature and current. Efficiency of LEDs fall with the increasing current. This effect is called droop. When operating temperature increases from 327K to 380K, the luminous efficiency dropped by 20%. When the temperature is rising, the radiation at the potential decreases which eventually cause a decrease in luminous efficiency. When operating current rises from 0mA to 350mA, the luminous efficiency of LED tend to be decreased by 35%. When current increases, more and more non-stable electrons diffuse out of potential well, thus decreasing the luminous efficiency. We can improve the luminous efficiency of a LED by improving the heat dissipation efficiency and increasing the width of potential well. Working condition of a LED should be under limited temperature and moderate current. The heat generated in the LED, reduces the efficiency of lighting performance. A good packing technology is the way to solve the heat dissipation problem. But developing a heat dissipation technology for reducing the LEDs working temperature is a real challenge. The efficiency and reliability of an LED depends on the thermal dissipation of an LED, because the heat generated in the junction affect the performance and effective operation of LED. LED efficiency can be improved by LED packaging. But, we need to over come the challenges facing in packaging stage to reach the desired efficiency. The challenges facing in packaging are colour consistency of light emitting, multi-chip packaging etc. Packaging technology used for high power LED are more complex and costly. In addition to packaging, chip structure and positive voltage also play a role in LED efficiency. Efficiency can be achieved if positive voltage can be controlled in a very small range. 7.Studies of radiation damage in solar cells and LEDs Solar cells Solar cells or photovoltaic (PV) cells are devices which converts solar light to electricity. Working principle of a solar cell is just opposite to that of LED. A solar cell converts light to electricity while a LED converts electricity to light. In a solar cells, photovoltaic effect generates electricity. Solar cells are made up of semiconductor materials like silicon. When light hits on a solar cell, some portion of a light is absorbed by silicon material. That means, the energy in the light is shifted to the semi conductor material. This energy excites the electrons and make them to break the covalent bond, Breaking of covalent bonds in an atom results in free electrons. This free electrons start flowing and the flow of free electrons cause a current flow in the solar cell. A group of solar cells are electrically connected to form a frame called solar panels. A solar panels are grouped to form large solar arrays. When sunlight hits the semiconductor, the electrons from P-type semiconductor springs up and is attracted towards the N-type semiconductor. This make negative charges in the N-type semiconductor and more positive charges in P-type semiconductor. Thus electricity is generated due to the flow of electrons. This is called photovoltaic effect. Radiation damage Radiation damage is the physical damage occurs to devices (solar cell or LED) in a radiation environment. Visible light, also known as electromagnetic radiation, does not damage soalr cells or LED normally. But exposing to ultra violet (UV) light , which has more energy, can damage the cells overtime. Output parameters of the devices are affected by radiation damage. Radiation damage in solar cells and LEDs occur when highly massive particles like electrons, protons, or ions come in contact with semi conductor materials. The source of the highly massive particles may be nuclear reactions, gamma rays, space radiation etc. The particles having mass and energy can interact with materials in different ways, such as inelastic collision with electrons in a material, inelastic collisions with nucleus and elastic collisions with nucleus. Ionisation and atomic displacement are the two categories of radiation damage that occur to solar cells and LEDs. Ionisation : Ionisation is the process when an atom becomes an ion. It happens, when electrons lose from an outer orbit or extra electrons are added to atom structure. High energy radiation cause ionisation in materials. The use of silicon is solar cells and LEDs cause a range of ionisation related radiation effects such as increased leakage current, decreased gain etc. Atomic displacement : When a fast particles collide with a crystal, silicon atoms may get displaced from their lattice structure. And this displacement may damage the silicon solar cells. Silicon Solar cell damage There are different method to measure silicon solar cell damage. One method is by measuring the irradiation changes occurring in a solar cell and can be explained using basic solar cell equation. This method require data such as series resistance, shunt resistance, current generated by light and diode parameters such as saturation current and quality factor of diode. Solar cell damage can also be measured by observing the change in minority carrier diffusion length. And this method is widely used because diffusion length is measurable. But there are many disadvantage to this method. One serious disadvantage is damage caused due to low energy protons. Low energy protons do a significant damage to the PN junction of a solar cell. This irregular damage increases the saturation and quality factor of the diode. This damage can cause a significant decrease in voltage. The output parameters of a solar cell can be described using the formula Isc  =  Isc0  Ã‚  C  log (1 +  Phi  /  Phix)  , where Isc is the cell short circuit current Phix is the radiation fluence at which Isc starts to change C is the Constant indicates the decrease in Isc per decade The relation between solar cell short circuit current and diffusion length can be represented as Isc  =  A  lnL  +  B. Solar cells are more prone to radiation damage in space. The degradation of cover glass material of solar cell in space is more. Ionisation cause more damage to covering material than atom displacement. Ionisation in material are directly depend on the radiation absorbed. Solar cells are usually made up of Si and GaAs which are more prone to radiation. Replacing these semiconductor material with InP during manufacturing is the best way to reduce damage due to radiation. InP is more resistant to radiation that Si or GaAs. InP substrate constructed with high carrier concentration has superior radiation resistance. LEDs are also prone to displacement damage. Shorter wave length AlGaAs and GaAs LEDs emitting light in the region 800-900nm are more prone to radiation damage. Manufacturing LEDs with higher wavelength is the answer to this radiation problem. 8. CONCLUSION LED lights are widely using these days commercially. The main advantage of LED is its reduced power consumption. They are highly efficient, cost effective, durable and long lasting. Inventions like quantum dot and Ionic Liquids in Nano Technology field, bring significant changes in Lighting. Quantum Dot LEDS are more efficient than normal LEDs, QLEDs use nano crystals as their lighting materials. Use of gold or silver nano particles increases the luminescence emitted from the QLEDs. Introduction of Ionic Liquids, changed the appearance of LED lights. Ordinary LED lights produces a harsh white lights. Implementing a layer of ionic liquids to the LED light, produces a warm light. Researches were made to find the ways of improving the efficiencies of LED. When expose to space radiation solar cells and LEDs are more prone to damages. And it reduces the life span of these devices. Researches are still continuing in the field of nano technology, searching for finding new methods to improve the efficiency of lighting devices.

Impact Of The Monetary Policies

Impact Of The Monetary Policies Introduction Through a literature review, this chapter aims to explore the impact of the monetary policies and regulations on bank risks and their operations in Zimbabwe. Section 2.1 will give a brief over view of Zimbabwe and Section 2.2 will discuss the Zimbabwean economy. Section 2.3 will outline a background on the rationale of financial regulation through the exploration of the Basle Accord II. In section 2.4, financial regulation in Zimbabwe and its influence to the economy will be examined. An overview of the banking system and the type of risks it is exposed to will be considered in section 2.5. Section 2.6 will explore the Zimbabwean banking system and its major challenges also linking these to the country„Â ¢s financial regulation. In section 2.7 the author discusses Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) which is an integrated and holistic risk management framework that organisations are encouraged to use as a change management strategy for managing risks. Section 2.8 will finally sum marise this chapter. Overview of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) is a landlocked country in south-central Africa. It lies between the Zambezi River which in the north and the Limpopo River in the south. Its neighbouring countries are Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique and Botswana. Zimbabwes capital city, Harare, is located in the northeast part of the country (Coltart 2008). Zimbabwe gained its independence from Britain in 1980 after a long armed struggle led by the leading party, Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front known as ZANU-PF, (Makumbe, 2002). It has a population of 13,349,00 people with a gross domestic product that is estimated to have fallen by about 14% in 2008 due to economic disruptions caused by hyperinflation and the further deterioration in the business climate (World Bank 2008). The economy of Zimbabwe Chitiga (2004) contends that agriculture plays a central role in the economic performance of Zimbabwe. The agricultural sector is important to the economy for several reasons (Christiansen 1993).In the 1980s, it was the major employer, employing a total of over 70% of the country„Â ¢s population. The sector continues to be a major employer to this day. In Zimbabwe, droughts continue to be a major problem and raises concern about food security (Chitiga 2004). However despite the ever changing weather patterns affecting the agriculture sector in Zimbabwe, Coltart (2004) notes that agriculture the mainstay of the economy was all but destroyed by the politically expedient and violent land reform program initiated by the ZANU PF government in 2000. Collapse of Zimbabwean economy Coorey et al( 2007) argues that, while the initial output collapse is widely attributed to the chaotic seizure of commercial farms in Zimbabwe which is the backbone of the economy, other factors have also contributed in recent years to the county„Â ¢s collapse which include; 1) high and accelerating inflation of 230 000 000% in 2008, 2) price distortions due to extensive controls and regulation, particularly relating to the exchange rate which is fixed by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) at a highly overvalued rate, 3) the collapse of investor confidence due to unpredictable policies and lack of respect for property rights, particularly in agriculture and mining and 4) minimal external financing because of poor relations with creditors and donors and deteriorating economic and social conditions. (Munoz 2006, Dore et al 2008, Hanke 2008) argue that the RBZ„Â ¢s polices such as printing of money, quasi-fiscal activities by the RBZ, have specifically caused the economic instability in Zimbabwe. The consensus amongst these authors is that the country„Â ¢s government policies alongside with the central bank have played a major role in causing hyperinflation which rose to 230 000 000% in 2008. Coltart (2004) highlights that the government is chiefly responsible for an economic meltdown. Muponda (2008) notes that Zimbabwe„Â ¢s inflation was driven higher by the central banks lack of independence from the government. Therefore the banks policies have been primarily dictated by the government. The RBZ has been forced to be financier of first choice and literally print money to fund its the quasi fiscal activities.. The challenges faced by Zimbabwe have been contributed by various factors including, the land reform programme in 2000 (Coorey et al 2007), political unrest in the country which has isolated the country from the global community through sanctions and withdrawal of investments and international business community. Research by Cukierman (2001) and the IMF (1996) suggest that countries accorded greater autonomy to their central banks also experienced lower average inflation whilst those economies where there is no central bank independence have higher inflation rates. The influence of the government on the RBZ has resulted in the bank implementing unorthodox monetary practices such as printing of money which has fuelled hyperinflation. Hanke (2008) refers to hyperinflation as the hallmark of Zimbabwe„Â ¢s economic collapse. The state of the Zimbabwean economy has undergone, major changes with major economic and political reforms implemented by government officials to restore the economic soundness of the country in the year 2009. There is the use of multi currencies in the country as the economy was officially dollarized by the central bank in February 2009 resulting in the removal of the local currency (RBZ 2009). Since the adoption of multiple currencies, deposits into the banking system have grown to US$705.7 million by 3 June 2000 (Government of Zimbabwe 2009). Already, the economy is on a recovery path as reflected by macro-economic stability, inflation reduction, enhanced capacity utilisation, resulting in improved supply of goods and services as well as overall growing business confidence (Biti 2009). Financial Regulation Effective regulation is of fundamental importance for the economic performance of any sector in the economy to address market failure (Jalilian et al 2003). The mishaps and failure of large corporate institutions in the financial sector have caught the attention of regulators, who have taken a more stringent regulatory approach in the financial sector. In recent years, a number of financial crises have brought about a large number of bank failures (Casu et al 2006), such as Barings Bank in 1995 and Northern Rock in 2007. Likewise the banking crises in the early 1980s and early 1990s have shown that banks experience problems which create a potential threat to depositors, investors and the safety of the industry with unpleasant consequences for the economy as a whole (Caprio and Klingebiel 2003). Financial regulation focuses on the factors that are essential to the stability and well being of the financial sector (Stewart 2001). The susceptibility of banks to contagion creates systemic risk which is the risk that disturbances in a financial institution or market will spread across the financial system (Heffernan 2005). It is the role of the central bank to implement measures to shield the country„Â ¢s economy from being affected by the results of the crises. Stiglitz (2000) contends that the aim of regulators is to minimise the possibility of a breakdown in the financial sector and prevent any adverse effects on the long term growth rate in the economy. In some instances government have had to rescue banks to avoid the crises from spreading to other banks and affecting depositors as well.. Restrictions on bank activities, risk adjusted minimum capital requirement, direct intervention of managers decisions are three basic devices that can be applied by regulators to control bank risks (Fenandez and Gonzalez 2005). Minimum capital requirements Various authors (Besanko and Kanatas 1996, Calem and Rob 1999) however argue that regulations such as minimum capital requirements are likely to increase the risk taking behaviour of banks. According to Kendall (1992) higher capital requirements may cause riskier bank behaviour at some point in time, although it does not necessarily imply a trend towards a riskier banking system. Beatty and Gron (2001) indicate that capital regulatory variables have significant effects for low-capital banks but not necessarily for other banks. Studies by Barth et al. (2004) also indicate that while more stringent capital requirements are associated with fewer non performing loans, capital stringency is not robustly linked with banking crises or bank development or efficiency when controlling for other supervisory and regulatory policies. Bank Regulations Bank authorities regularly attempt to promote bank soundness by imposing restrictions on banks activities (Constantin et al, 2006). In their research, Constantin et al (2006) found that restricting bank activities is negatively associated with bank development and stability. Barth et al. (2001) found that greater regulatory restrictions on bank activities are associated with higher probability of suffering a major banking crisis, and lower banking sector efficiency. Lascelles (2005) adds that a survey conducted by Pricewaterhouse Coopers found that excessive regulation was seen as the greatest risk facing the financial sector. However in contrast to this, Fernandez and Gonzalez (2005) indicate that stricter restrictions on bank activities are effective at reducing banking risk. It would appear overall that restrictions on banking activities forms as a basis of ensuring that banks do not divert from their core business and conduct sound banking practices. Basle Accord It is because of problems such as the financial crises that the Basle Accord II emphasises on the supervisory role of the regulator. In June 1999, the Basle Committee on Banking Supervision made its long anticipated announcement to introduce a new capital accord to introduce a new capital adequacy framework to replace the 1988 Accord (Ong 2005). This framework was then finalised in June 2004. Cai and Wheale (2007) note that this framework is designed to improve risk management by using models based on past performance to help set the amount of capital banks are required to hold by regulators with the purpose of improving the efficiency of the global allocation of capital. Efforts were made to initiate the new Accord as the first accord of 1988 was highly criticised for its shortcomings. risk. The new accord seeks to overcome the problems of the 1988 framework focusing on three pillars (Basel Committee 2005). Pillar 1 sets out the minimum regulatory capital requirement that is the amount of capital banks must hold against risks. This is intended to cover market risk, credit risk and operational risk. Pillar 2 defines the process for supervisory review of an institutions risk management framework and, ultimately, its capital adequacy. This pillar points out responsibilities for the board and senior management, emphasising on internal control corporate governance practices established by regulatory bodies in various countries worldwide. Sironi and Zazzara (2003) argue that this pillar gives regulators the right to inspect and supervise the activities of banks to ensure that they are adhering to the requirements of the framework Pillar 3 focuses on market discipline. In order to improve the transparency of banks to counterparties and investors, banks will be required to disclose detailed information on their risk profile and capital adequacy (Gordy and Howells 2006). The benefits of the Basle II are noted in the three pillars, as there will be enhanced disclosure, transparency and this will improve on banks risk management processes. Cai and Wheale (2005), site that banks will need to collect and disclose new information and face the implications of increased transparency. Cai and Wheale (2005) add that more information will help enable banks to improve overall risk management which in turn is expected to prompt improvements in corporate governance, transparency and the value of disclosure. Ong (2005), supports this and says that Basle II is very important and it is about improving risk management within the financial industry by providing the correct incentives for better corporate governance and fostering greater transparency. The Basle accord on the other hand is criticised for some of its shortfalls. For example the fact that the costs of Basle II are significantly high in terms of implementation and continuing basis in the long run (Gordon 2004). Banks lose their flexibility, innovation and development are interrupted. Due to the fact that limited resources are available, many risk managers will spend a long period of time on interpreting regulations, implementing the solutions and then justifying the output to supervisors (Smith and Walter 2003). Hence little time will be available for innovation and development. The compliance with laws and regulations is not able to help banks avoiding all risks. Zimbabwean Financial Regulation The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe is responsible for the formulation; implementation and monitoring of the monetary policy directed at ensuring low and stable inflation levels (Reserve Bank Act). The RBZ does not, however have the operational independence in carrying out this responsibility, as it is required by statute to consult the Ministry of Finance (Dore 2008). This has resulted in the RBZ operating from the executive arm of the government instead of adhering to a binding legal mandate (World Bank 2007). Bade and Parkin (1982) note that political independence is defined essentially as the ability of the central bank to select its policy objectives without the influence from the government. A central bank is said to be independent of its monetary policy if it is not influenced by political cycles or by the preferences of politicians (Eljffinger and de Haan 1996). The RBZ„Â ¢s policies have been influenced by Zimbabwean political authorities therefore the bank has been lacking central bank independence. Another core function of the RBZ is to maintain stable banking system through its supervision and lender of last resort functions. Post 2003 monetary polices and regulation The turning point in Zimbabwean financial services sector was marked by the appointment of the new central bank governor in 2003. During this period the governor issued a monetary policy and financial regulations which sought to minimise non-core banking activities practiced by banking institutions (Dore 2008). The other objectives were to instil market discipline and improve corporate governance and risk management systems. As a result of the RBZ„Â ¢s severe supervisory efforts, various banking institutions experienced liquidity and solvency challenges. Consequently, nine financial institutions were placed under curatorship whilst 3 were liquidated. Banks currently face risk management challenges, economic and political uncertainties and new regulatory requirements emanating from the RBZ regulations and unstable political environment (Muponda 2008). The RBZ governor, notes in the 2009 monetary policy (Government of Zimbabwe 2009) that prior to 2003, an adverse macroeconomic environment, weak supervisory approaches, and regulatory forbearance gave rise to a number of fundamental flaws in the operations of banks. These included; 1) a shift from core banking business to speculative transactions, 2) abuse of bank holding company structures to evade regulation, 3) poor corporate governance, risk management practices and insider dealing, 4) rapid local and regional expansion with no proper internal controls, and adequate capacity and 5) disregard of prudential laws and regulations. Smith and Walter (2003) suggest that the fundamental objective of regulators is to develop frameworks and guidelines that will further strengthen the stability of banking system. This objective is achieved in promoting the adoption of these frameworks in banks. To enhance the supervisory process, the RBZ has developed and issued guidelines for the banking s ector in order to address operational and structural deficiencies prevailing in the financial sector, (Government of Zimbabwe 2009). These guidelines are shown below in table 1. Basel II implementation The Basel II implementation in Zimbabwean banking industry is still in its preliminary stages. A survey by Ernest and Young in 2005 (Lescellos 2005) shows that many banks in developed countries have come up with implementation programmes of Basle II whilst in developing countries implementation is still at the initial stages. This survey is confirmed by evidence of the current implementation status in Zimbabwe. The current guidelines setup by regulators in Zimbabwe is that all banking institutions must fully adopt standardised approaches for allocation of capital for risk (credit, market and operational). However a technical guidance on Basle II implementation in Zimbabwe will be issued in due course to provide a road map and expert guidance on full Basle II implementation in the country, (Monetary Policy 2009).This shows how slow the progress has been in the full implementation of the framework in Zimbabwe, and could be the cause of the major problems faced by country„Â ¢s th e banking industry. Cai and Wheale (2005) however report that awareness and preparation for Basel II in the emerging markets and developing countries has increased significantly over the past two years. Banking Sector It is widely accepted that the banking system has a unique position in the national economy (Heffernan 2005). A banking system that is able to operate efficiently is of crucial importance to any economy (Quagliariello 2002). The banking system must not only be efficient in carrying its role as an intermediary in the financial market but it must also be economically robust to withstand adverse shocks such as a major policy change to economic downturn. Traditional functions of banks include lending money to borrowers and taking deposits. They play a financial intermediary role of providing loans to borrowers and collecting deposits from savers (Casu et al, 2006). Poorly operating banking systems can impede economic growth, intensify poverty and destabilise the economy. These poor operations can be due to banks with inadequate risk management processes (Stiglitz 2000). Banking Risks The nature of banking activities eposes banks to the following risks Due to the nature of banking activities, they are exposed to various risks. These credit risk, market risk, liquidity risk, operational and foreign exchange risk. Credit risk The Basle Committee on Banking Supervision (2000) define credit risk as the potential that a borrower or counterparty will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with greater terms. Credit risk is associated with the traditional lending activity of banks and it is simply described as the risk of a loan being repaid in part or full (Casu et al, 2006). Liquidity risk This is the possibility that a bank will be unable to meet its liquid liabilities because of unexpected withdrawals of deposits. An unexpected liquidity shortage means that the bank is not only unable to meet its liability obligations but also unable to fund its illiquid asset (Matthews and Thompson 2008) Interest rate risk Financial intermediaries are potentially exposed to interest rate risk because of the mismatch between the maturity, or time to repricing of their assets and liabilities (Faff and Howard, 1999). The interest rate sensitivity exhibited by a financial institution will depend, in part, on the approach which its management adopts to controlling risk. Operational risk The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision in 2003, recommended the correct determination of the risks to which a banking organization is subject. This concerns, in particular, operational risks, which are all those management events that may determine unexpected losses (Cornalba and Guidici 2005). The New Basle Accord (2000) defines operational risks as the risk of loss resulting from inadequate or failed internal processes, people and systems or from external events (such as political and economic factors), including legal risk but not strategic and reputation risk. Market risk According to Matthews and Thompson (2008), market risk is the possibility of loss over a given period of time related to uncertain movement in market risk factors such as interest rates, currencies equities and commodities. Foreign exchange risk Exchange rates may change rapidly which exposes firms to foreign exchange rate risk, which is the risk that losses may arise from rises or falls in the value of a currency in terms of the domestic currency. Eichenbam and Evans (1995) suggest that there is a link between monetary policies and foreign exchange rates. Contractionary shocks to monetary policies are followed by sharp persistent increases in exchange rates, which ultimately results in foreign exchange rate risk. Other risks that affect banks include strategic, regulatory and legal and compliance risk There is a clear sense that risk exposure of the financial system has increased by changes that have taken place (Hellwig 1995). Casu et al (2006) notes that changes such as deregulation, conglomeration, and globalisation have posed serious risk challenges. Calomiris and Maso (2003) emphasise that the risk taking behaviour of banks affects financial and economic fragility. In turn regulators have undertaken greater efforts of regulation to impose new risk management standards to shape bank risk (Elsinger et al 2002). In compliance to this banks have improved their risk management systems. Examples of other regulatory reforms advocating for risk management frameworks are the Sarbanes Oxely Act of 2002, the Basle Accord II and the Committee of Sponsoring Organisations of the Treadway Commissions (COSO) Enterprise Risk Management of 2004. Zimbabwe banking sector The Zimbabwe financial sector consists of the Reserve bank, discount houses, commercial banks, merchant banks, finance houses, building societies, a development bank and the Post office savings bank, insurance companies, pension funds and a stock exchange, (Dore 2008). There are currently twenty-eight banking institutions in Zimbabwe,fifteen commercial banks, six merchant banks, three discount houses,4 discount houses and one development bank. All banks are licensed by the RBZ and regulated under the Zimbabwe Banking Act of 1999. Zimbabwe„Â ¢s financial services sector has witnessed phenomenal growth since economic deregulation in 1991 (Muranda 2006). During the period of 1991 to 2003 new domestic banks entered, financial sector. New Innovations and development have been witnessed with the introduction of new products and services within the sector. Table 1.2 below shows the banking sectors growth trend from 19992 to 2004 of financial. However the banking sector has been gripped with many challenges, which began to surface during the period of the land seizures in 2000. These policies created extremely difficult economic and political challenges for the banking industry. The IMF (2006) argues that events in the banking sector have been concurrently influenced by political factors.. The situation was heightened in 2003 by the new regulations set by the appointed RBZ governor. It was reported by Voice of America (2004) that at least six of Zimbabwe„Â ¢s new commercial banks are were in trouble. It linked this distress to the governments new monetary policy announced in December 2003, in which the central bank vowed to stop speculation in the Zimbabwe dollar and related instruments. Biti (2009) in the Zimbabwean fiscal policy points out that between 2000 and 2008, the financial sector has severely been undermined by inconsistent macro-economic policies, negative real interest rates, massive capital flight and erosion of deposits. Overall, the financial sectors balance sheets were reduced to less than 25% of their 2004 value, reflecting an erosion of the real value of financial assets and liabilities in Zimbabwe dollars (World Bank 2005). In order to remain afloat, most banks have had to downsize their operations by closing some branches, especially those in the outlying service centres, leaving about 65% of the population without access to banking services. The rural areas were particularly affected by this. Factors that have influenced liquidity risks include frequent ad hoc changes in interest rates by the RBZ, lengthening of maturity of treasury bills at highly negative interest rates (IMF 2008). Foreign exchange risk in the banking sector has increased becau se of the dominance of foreign currency transactions (Hanke 2008). Dhiwayo (2004) reports that, prior to the introduction of the new monetary policy in December 2003, the Zimbabwean banking sector was characterised by poor corporate governance and risk management systems, high levels of insider abuse through assessed loans to related parties (often relatives and friends), overindulgence in speculative non-core banking activities, inadequate capitalisation, lax prudential supervision and regulatory forbearance. This report highlights that three financial institutions were placed under liquidation whilst nine were placed under the administration of a curator. In light of this the central bank adopted a framework known as the Troubled Bank Resolution Framework (RBZ 2004) to effectively deal with banks experiencing problems. They key objectives of this framework were to: 1) restore stability of the financial sector, 2) strengthen the banking system and promote sound banking practices, 3) develop permanent solutions for troubled banking institutions and 4) promote economic development and growth.The Zimbabwe Allied Banking group was formed in 2005 which was amalgamation of the some of the troubled banks. Dollarisation of the economy Over the years the financial sector has been experiencing various challenges such as, cash shortage, foreign currency black markets, abolition of notes and coins and the use of bearer cheques, loss of confidence in the banking system by depositors and the most influential factor which is inflation. Many depositors have lost their savings. Prior to 2009, the Zimbabwean economy had been unofficially dollarised. Unofficial dollarisation occurs when people hold much of their financial wealth in foreign assets even though foreign currency is not a legal tender. It can include the holding of foreign bonds and other non-monetary assets, foreign-currency deposits (either abroad or domestically), and foreign notes (paper money) in wallets, under mattresses, and in safe-deposit boxes, (Hanke, 2008). However in the January 2009 monetary policy, the RBZ governor approved that all sectors in the economy can operate in foreign currency and that lending will be two tier, that is in local currency and foreign currency. Dollarisation has the effect of moderating the adverse effects of inflation on financial intermediaries„Â ¢ balance sheets (Ize et al 2004). This It could be argued that this two tier market system exposes banks to credit risk (in the form of settlement risk and default risk). Minimum capital requirements A capital verification exercise conducted by the Reserve Bank in January 2009 indicated that of the twenty eight (28) banking institutions operating in the country, fifteen were found to be in compliance with the minimum capital requirements whilst three are marginally below, with the remaining ten being undercapitalised. Capital regulation is motivated principally by the concerns that a bank may hold less capital than is socially optimal to its riskiness and negative externalties (Rime 2001). Chiuri et al (2002) considers that the enforcement of capital requirements has had a negative effect on the supply of bank loan over a period of time and the effect tends to be stronger for initially less capitalised banks. The adverse impact of more stringent minimum capital requirements has been somewhat smaller on foreign owned banks than it has on domestic banks (Clarke et al 1999). Enterprise Risk Management A recent trend in risk management has been the development of an integrated, enterprise wide approach to assessing the business risks that can impact an organisation to achieve its objectives and to develop programmes for managing those risks (Miccolis et al 2001). In contrast to the traditional silo approach to managing risk, the ERM approach requires that a company-wide approach be taken in identifying, assessing, and managing risk, (Liebenberg and Hoyt, 2003). ERM enables firms to benefit from an integrated approach to managing risk that shifts the focus of the risk management function from primarily defensive to increasingly offensive and strategic (Bies 2004). Various risk management bodies have been influenced by the proposals of ERM.COSO (2004), defines ERM as: A process, effected by an entitys board of directors, management and other personnel, applied in strategy setting and across the enterprise, designed to identify potential events that may affect the entity, and manage risk to be within its risk appetite, to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of entity objectives. The common method of risk management has been known to treat risks separately. Under this approach according to Lam (1997), Cumming and Hirtle (2001), various categories of risk are managed separately in individual risk silos. Liebenberg and Hoyt, (2003) also criticise the traditional risk management approach as a highly disaggregated method of managing firm risks. An enterprise-wide approach to risk management treats each of these risk classes as part of the firms overall risk portfolio that is managed holistically. Kleffner et al (2003) observes that financial institutions often manage risks in individual risk silos. To manage risk on an enterprise wide basis, banks must expand their focus beyond traditional concepts to include economic and political factors along with risks related to reputation, ethics and data integrity (Pricewaterhouse Coopers 2002). It is therefore important in this research to examine how banks have adopted their risk management framework having considered political and economic factors affecting Zimbabwean bank s. Although ERM is increasing, not as many institutions have implemented it (Walker et al 2002). This may be due to lack of knowledge on its benefits, lack of commitment from board of directors, lack of experienced and qualified risk personnel , a corporate culture that discourages ERM and inadequate systems and technology (COSO 2004). Lam (2007) encourages banks to adopt an ERM programme regardless of their level of sophistication in risk management. He identifies three reasons why banks should adopt ERM: 1.) banks face complex risks that are highly interdependent, and an ERM framework enables a bank to manage all major risks and their interdependencies, 2) an ERM framework provides the overall architecture for a banks risk management programme and 3) empirical research and industry surveys have indicated that there are clear business benefits for adopting an ERM programme. Liebenberg and Hoyt, (2003) observe that ERM benefits firms by decreasing earnings and stock-price volatility, reducing external capital costs, increasing capital efficiency, and creating synergies between different risk management activities. It would appear that ERM helps an organisation to function as a whole or one system as various units dependant on each other. This enables risk management to be implemented fully as risks are consolidated and not treated separately. Influencers of ERM The trend toward the adoption of ERM programs is usually attributed to a combination of external and internal factors. The major exter

Design & Architecture in Britain Essay -- Architecture in the UK

One of the essential roles that architects are trained to fulfil is taking a clients brief and developing it creatively. Developing a brief is a crucial starting point of design to achieving a clear objective, well structured and financed plan of work. When architects are involved early in the planning stage they have an opportunity to create a much more enriched brief as they will have a greater understanding of the clients needs and the nature of the project Setting out a development/design brief: Before any design work is undertaken it is important that a development/design brief is in place. A good design brief provides a platform for buildings to be used; -More Efficiently – so that space can be utilised in the best approach possible with minimum wasted space. -Effectively – in a way that allows the building to be socially sustainable. -Expressively – within the built environment to the value of society. -With Purpose –giving the building’s function and placement significant, accessible and prosperous. Good briefing provides all involved professionals with a greater understanding of the desired outcomes and the responsibilities towards achieving those. Briefing – A six step process 1. Scope Definition of breadth, focus, scope and parameters of the briefing project 2. Role Statement describing what the user organisation (public, community, city authority, etc.) is for 3. Activities -Activity statement is a description of what will go on in the building 4. Draft requirements Includes a space budget listing functional requirements, also spatial... ... Process’,Dawe.L.2014 Part B: Lecture 4 - ‘Practice Management’,Dawe.L.2014 Lecture 5 - ‘An introduction to BIM’- Past Present and future, Comiskey.D.2014 Lecture 6 - ‘Plan of Work 2013’,Dawe.L.2014 Lecture 7 - ‘Procurement&Construction process’,Dawe.L.2014 Books Greenhalgh, B (2011). Introduction to Building Procurement. London: Spon Press Ostime, N (2013). Architects Job Book. London: RIBA Publishing. Websites RIBA. RIBA Plan of Work 2013. Available: http://www.architecture.com/TheRIBA/AboutUs/Professionalsupport/RIBAOutlinePlanofWork2013.aspx#.Uz5Cm_ldUgQ. Last accessed 2nd April 2014. placeni. Summer Urban design school. Available: http://www.placeni.org/. Last accessed 2nd April 2014 The Joint Contracts Tribunal. (1998). Contracts. Available: http://www.jctltd.co.uk/home.aspx. Last accessed 2nd April 2014. Design & Architecture in Britain Essay -- Architecture in the UK One of the essential roles that architects are trained to fulfil is taking a clients brief and developing it creatively. Developing a brief is a crucial starting point of design to achieving a clear objective, well structured and financed plan of work. When architects are involved early in the planning stage they have an opportunity to create a much more enriched brief as they will have a greater understanding of the clients needs and the nature of the project Setting out a development/design brief: Before any design work is undertaken it is important that a development/design brief is in place. A good design brief provides a platform for buildings to be used; -More Efficiently – so that space can be utilised in the best approach possible with minimum wasted space. -Effectively – in a way that allows the building to be socially sustainable. -Expressively – within the built environment to the value of society. -With Purpose –giving the building’s function and placement significant, accessible and prosperous. Good briefing provides all involved professionals with a greater understanding of the desired outcomes and the responsibilities towards achieving those. Briefing – A six step process 1. Scope Definition of breadth, focus, scope and parameters of the briefing project 2. Role Statement describing what the user organisation (public, community, city authority, etc.) is for 3. Activities -Activity statement is a description of what will go on in the building 4. Draft requirements Includes a space budget listing functional requirements, also spatial... ... Process’,Dawe.L.2014 Part B: Lecture 4 - ‘Practice Management’,Dawe.L.2014 Lecture 5 - ‘An introduction to BIM’- Past Present and future, Comiskey.D.2014 Lecture 6 - ‘Plan of Work 2013’,Dawe.L.2014 Lecture 7 - ‘Procurement&Construction process’,Dawe.L.2014 Books Greenhalgh, B (2011). Introduction to Building Procurement. London: Spon Press Ostime, N (2013). Architects Job Book. London: RIBA Publishing. Websites RIBA. RIBA Plan of Work 2013. Available: http://www.architecture.com/TheRIBA/AboutUs/Professionalsupport/RIBAOutlinePlanofWork2013.aspx#.Uz5Cm_ldUgQ. Last accessed 2nd April 2014. placeni. Summer Urban design school. Available: http://www.placeni.org/. Last accessed 2nd April 2014 The Joint Contracts Tribunal. (1998). Contracts. Available: http://www.jctltd.co.uk/home.aspx. Last accessed 2nd April 2014.

Catal Huyuk was a Civilization Essay examples -- essays research paper

Catal Huyuk was a Civilization According to archaeologist in order to be defined as a civilization certain criteria must be met. Early archaeologists believed in order to be considered a civilization a society must have cultural superiority, which meant they must have the ability to read and write. If this was the sole criteria used to judge if a society was labeled a civilization, then you could say the Inca of South America, who constructed cities on top of mountains and had a complex system of irrigation canals, were not one because they did not have a system for reading or writing. Modern archaeologists now think of civilization as not better but different. The modern definition of civilization consists of the development of cities, or urbanization, the existence of a centralized political unit, a dense population in the thousands and a degree of organizational complexity. After reading and listening to class lecture I believe that Catal Huyuk should be considered a civilization. As you read on I will discuss point by point why I feel Catal Huyuk was a civilization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Signs of craft specialization are very apparent at Catal Huyuk. There are a variety tools and weapons made from obsidian, flint, stone and bone. A process called flint knapping, or chipping, was used to shape a stone, like flint, into a sharp tool which could be used in arrowheads. Another process that was used in making tools was called grounding. This involved using two ston...

Political Sponsering of Ngos Essay

Greenpeace and green political parties are united in their position against nuclear energy and their support for renewable energies. Christian charity organizations and conservative political parties both stand for traditional family values and against family planning. But does this mean they should work together? Often political parties sponsor NGOs, but is this sponsoring even acceptable? There are several arguments which we would like to consider. The credibility of NGOs as independent organizations and their ability to pursue their social interests are harmed by political sponsoring. The credibility of NGOs decreases, because more often than not, the interests of political parties are more important than the original agenda of the NGOs, due to (financial) sponsoring. The reason for political parties to engage with NGOs in the form of political sponsoring is to increase attention for the statements on the political agenda. NGOs often have more resources and are less restrained to all sorts of rules and laws to protest in rigorous actions. However, this money can only be invested when the NGO compromises its own agenda with the agenda of the political party, which means that they might have to compromise on their own values, missions and visions. Hence the question rises; how can an NGO be called non-governmental when there is a political influence? A counterargument for this is that there is a difference between a political party and the government. Of course this is the case, but a political party is a part of the government. In the Netherlands it is even the case that the political parties get subsidy by the government, so these are inseparable. Thus we argue you can? t call a NGO non-governmental anymore when it is sponsored by political parties, which significantly decreases their credibility. Democratic control of political action that is ‘outsourced’ to NGOs and is therefore beyond democratic control. When a political party is chosen to participate in a country’s parliament, this is done in a democratic way. People can vote for the party that has arguments and goals closest to the person’s own vision. However, the board of an NGO is not chosen in a democratic way, they are simply hired because they are the ‘right person to do the job’. When NGOs will engage in political actions, people who are not democratically chosen will gain political power. The accountability of political parties to their stakeholders, in particular those who may not agree with the objectives of the NGOs that are sponsored, is harmed by political sponsoring. When people vote democratically for a political party, they vote for the agenda the political party has before engaging with any other organization. When political parties go and sponsor NGOs, the party most likely has to compromise on its own agenda to get to an agreement with an NGO. Citizens now are ‘voting’ for NGOs without knowing this. The voters do often not have a say in which NGOs are sponsored, so there is a great likelihood that part of the political party’s stakeholders will not approve of the chosen NGOs at all. The missions and visions of these organizations could be in contradiction with the opinions of the stakeholders and voters, and they have absolutely no control over this. Proponents of political sponsoring say that the voters don’t compromise, because they have the same goal as the political parties. We would like to stress here that even though someone has the same goal, you don’t have to agree with the actions that are taken. Especially actions of NGOs, which are most commonly known as radical, can get a lot of resistance by the voters and other stakeholders of the political parties. An important question you can ask yourself in the light of this last argument is: Does the end justify the means? Does the common goal lead to an acceptance of all (radical) actions taken by NGOs? This is an important question, especially for the stakeholders of the political party, because by political sponsoring all the stakeholders of the parties (including the voters) indirectly approve of the NGOs’ actions.

Mixture Lab Write Up

judicial separation of a brininess, Sand, and Water Mixture Jamie Schurz and capital of Texas Hoggard Date experiment was per varietyed September 6 and September 7 Int celestial poleuction utilization The purpose of the experiment was to use discordant lab equipment and lab techniques to separate a miscellanea of brininess, common sense, and wet. Background An element is the simplest form of a substance that retains the properties of that substance. A involved is a substance formed by combining 2 or much elements set in fixed proportions. A mixture is a system of two or more distinct chemical substance substances. Unlike compounds, mixtures can be naturally combined.Because the components are physically combined, they can in addition be disordered victimisation physical properties. Physical properties are properties that do non change the chemical nature of matter. In this lab, a mixture of common season and mainstay will be separated using the listed equip ment and separation techniques. Hypothesis If a mixture of gritstone (3. 3g), flavor (1. 2g), and body of water is separated using filtration and huming lodge, hence close to of the gritstone and salt will be cured. Safety Information During the experiment, leave sentry duty wear should be worn at all times such as goggles and an apron (to prevent salt or heated water from entree the eye).Beaker tongs should be apply to comp allowe the heater beaker from the appropriate heating immutability and then it should be carefully transported onto the designated touch vulcanized fiber pad to cool. Materials and Methods * * Graduated cylinder * Small beaker ( degree centigrade mL) * Large beaker (600 mL) * Hot domicile * Small ring * Funnel * dawn idea * Glass stir rod with rubber policeman * Hot mitts * Beaker tongs * Pressed fiber pad * reckon boat * Electronic balance * Scoops * Salt and sand sample * water data-based Procedure 1. Put on appropriate safety wear. 2. B egin this experiment with 47 mL of water, 1. 2 g of salt, and 3. g of sand. * Use the 100 graduated cylinder to find the 47 mL of water, recitation from the meniscus. * Put the weigh boat onto the electronic balance and zero it out, then slow add the salt until you have 1. 2 grams of it. Do the same for the sand. * Also bus the larger of the two beakers 3. Combine the 1. 2g of salt and 47 mL of water into the 100 mL beaker and stir until the salt is fade out 4. Add the sand and wait until it settles onto the bum of the beaker. 5. flowerpot the filter report and then fold it into a small cone. laden sides before placing into funnel that is inside a ring stand.Place larger beaker underneath funnel. 6. soft pour sand and salt mixture by dint of filter paper. Let the sand dry. 7. Take large beaker with salt and water and place on top of a calefactory place. Set hot plate onto its highest setting and let boil. 8. Once salt starts popping lower temperature on hot plate. When closely of the water has evaporated remove from hot plate using beaker tongs and let rest on pressed fiber pad. 9. Turn hot plate off. 10. Mass out recovered sand and salt. Results stark naked Data object Mass (g) scratch quid of salt 1. 2g Starting luck of sand 3. 3gDry filter paper 0. 7g Larger of the 2 beakers 103. 1g Total mound of beaker/salt (after) 105. 3g Mass of recovered salt 2. 2g Total surge of filter paper/sand (after) 4. 1g Mass of recovered sand 3. 4g Important results * The mass of recovered salt was 2. 2g * The mass of recovered sand was 3. 4g * The percentage misunderstanding for the mass of recovered salt was 83% error * The percent error for the mass of the recovered sand was 3% * The percent yield for the mass of the recovered salt was 183% * The percent yield for the mass of the recovered sand was 103% CalculationsDiscussion judge results v. Actual results In the experiment, the mass of the salt recovered was larger than the mass of the metre of salt that was started out with. This may be due to the tap water that was used not being pure or that some sand was small rich to not be filtered out. Analyze experimental error During the experiment, sooner of measuring the water out to exactly 47mL, around 60 mL of water was used. This could have caused on that point to be extra water during the nett measurement.There was not enough time to boil off the extra water this was through with(p) by another person ulterior without either partner in the gathering supervising. Also, when looking for the sand sample the close day, it was missing so another aggroups sand data was massed instead Improvements Having a longer time to demeanour the experiment might have changed the data. sort of of leaving the sand sample in the open on a turn off to all classes, it may have been infract for them to be separated more. Results in monetary value of the purpose The aspiration was to get most of the salt and sand back through filtration a nd evaporation.Most of the sand was recovered however on that point was a great deal of added mass to the salt (around 1g). The goal was met as farther as data is concerned. Conclusion The goal of the experiment was to see if using boing point and filtration could recover close to the same amount of money of salt and sand put unitedly in a mixture. The experiment revealed a percent yield of 183% for salt and 103% for sand, which does behave the hypothesis that using those two techniques, most the same amount of salt and sand would be recovered.